Beowulf
 |
Why is Beowulf important?
by Araby Greene, Univ. of
Nevada
|
Beowulf is both the first
English literary masterpiece and the earliest European epic written in the
vernacular, or native language, instead of literary Latin. The story,
summarized in Bulfinch's
Mythology, survives in one fragile manuscript copied by two scribes near
the end of the 10th or the first quarter of the 11th century. Until quite
recently, most scholars thought that this surprisingly complex and poignant poem
was written in the 8th century or earlier, but Kevin Kiernan
stirred up controversy in 1981
by asserting that the work was composed in the 11th century, and that the
manuscript itself may have even been the author's working copy.
The manuscript was badly damaged by fire in
1731, and its charred edges crumbled over time, losing words on the outer
margins of the leaves. Finally, each leaf was carefully pasted into a frame to
stop this process. Of course the frames and the paste holding them in place
obliterated a little more of the text! Fortunately, many of the lost words were
recovered from a copy made before the manuscript deteriorated. Today,
ultraviolet light and other technologies reveal erasures,
text under the frames, and characteristics of the manuscript that
were previously undetectable.
| The Beowulf manuscript is now in the British
Library, but has been made accessible to all by The
Electronic Beowulf Project. It was once owned by Sir
Robert Bruce Cotton, an "antiquary" or collector
of Anglo-Saxon Charters and manuscripts, whose library was among
three foundation collections brought together by the creation of the British
Museum in 1753. |
Read the story of Beowulf
Important Terms
Primary Epic:
an epic is a poem that records and celebrates the heroic achievements of an
individual or individuals. A primary epic is an epic poem that comes from an
oral tradition. The Iliad and Odyssey are primary epics. A
secondary epic, such as The Aeneid, is a more deliberately literary
production. Both terms were developed by C. S. Lewis.
Scop:
an Old English term for poet. In Anglo-Saxon culture, the scop had the important
job of singing about the accomplishments of his patron and his people. The scop
functioned as both an entertainer and as an historian.
Heroic Ideal: Anglo-Saxon
culture was governed by the ideals of bravery, loyalty and generosity. The king
or lord surrounded himself with a band of retainers, who are rewarded with the
spoils of their victories. As E. Talbot Donaldson writes, “the retainers are
obligated to fight for their lord to the death, and if he is slain, to avenge
him or die in the attempt. Blood vengeance is regarded as a sacred duty, and in
poetry, everlasting shame awaits those who fail to observe it.”
Comitatus:
This term was developed by the Roman historian Tacitus in Germania.
Comitatus describes, as Robert C. Hughes writes, “the society . . . or
brotherhood of men who owed allegiance to a chieftain and expected his
benevolence in return.”
Wyrd:
Old English for fate, which was believed to be the controlling force of the
world for pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon culture.
Wergild:
“manprice”; As Donaldson writes, “If one of his kinsmen had been slain, a
man had a special duty of either killing the slayer or exacting from him the
payment of wergild. . . . The money itself had less significance as wealth than
as proof that the kinsmen had done what was right. Relatives who failed either
to exact wergild or to take vengeance could never be happy, having found no
practical way of satisfying their grief.”
Kenning: a
poetic device in Old English poetry consisting of a compound of two words in
place of another, such as Whale-road for sea.
Litotes:
an ironic understatement, also a common feature of Old English poetry.
Pronounced "LIE-TA-TEES."
Alliteration:
the occurrence in a phrase or line of poetry of two or more words having the
same initial sound. In OE poetry, alliteration is the principal poetic device.
Caesura:
a pause in a line of poetry.
Metonymy:
a figure of speech in which one thing
is used to designate something with which it is commonly associated, for
example, using "bottle" for "liquor."
Synecdoche:
a
figure of speech in which a part of something is is used to designate a whole,
for example, using "keel" for "ship."
Beowulf
is an epic poem dating from the 700's AD, about a great Anglo-Saxon
hero and is the most important relic of its literature. The poem tells
of the adventures and heroics of Beowulf and his
victories over the monster Grendel and Grendel's mother. It ends with
Beowulf's final battle with the Firedrake and the hero's death.
The poem shows the qualities most admired by
the Anglo-Saxons. Beowulf is a true hero -- one who is flawed, yet uses
his weaknesses to his advantage. "Beowulf had made the best of
all he had, putting each imperfection to work in the service of his integrity.
Thus, his real strength lay in the balance of his person --which is, perhaps,
another way of saying that he was strong because he was good, and good because
he had the strength to accept things in him that were bad." Beowulf was
the rare kind of a person who makes strength out of his own weaknesses.
Beowulf also
examines the Anglo-Saxon's fears of the unknown. The fears of death, failure,
and the future are mixed with a fear of natural phenomenon not understood
during the Middle Ages.
Its message is that evil destroys itself; good
cannot destroy evil because good cannot destroy. The theme of Good vs. Evil -
Black vs. White - Light vs. Dark is evident in the characters of Beowulf
and Grendel. Beowulf calls out, "I am light." He appears
white. Grendel hates light and lives for the darkness. He is pictured as
black and torches go out when he passes. Beowulf burns Grendel with
the touch of light and heat.
Vocabulary:
· Danes -- in the Middle Ages, one
of the Viking peoples
· Geats -- Anglo-Saxons (from
Briton)
· fen -- swampy marsh area; foggy;
damp
Characters:
· Scyld Scefing -- ruler of all the
Danes
· King Hrothgar -- the strongest of
Scyld's sons; builder of Heorot;
· Grendel -- archenemy of
all things good; the personification of evil
· Unferth -- rude, unpopular
drunkard with a rotten boil; believer in Grendel
· Queen Wealhtheow -- wife of
Hrothgar
· Beowulf -- nephew of King Hygelac;
slayer of Grendel, Grendel's mother, the Firedrake, and nine sea monsters;
personification of true good
· She -- Grendel's mother; totally
evil
Viking-Age Ship from
Norway:
University of
California at Berkeley
Study questions (under
construction)
Interested in finding out about heraldic designs on
shields and what they mean? You will design a shield for yourself in
class.
Illustration by Randy Grochoske
Images of
BEOWULF: click here
Beowulf Notes